Overview:
Scholars who wish to reach audiences beyond the academy turn to alternative channels to disseminate their academic knowledge and expertise – in more plain language – to those available through traditional academic venues (e.g., scholarly peer-reviewed journals and academic conferences). In this way, an academic’s knowledge can lead to the public's richer understandings of important social issues – local, regional, national, or global – and contribute to the betterment of society. Some may choose to convey their messages in a one-way, top-down form (i.e., information transmitted from scholar to receiver). Others may seek a two-way form such as collaboration with members of the public to cooperate in the design, investigation, and implementation of projects, thereby creating community-university partnerships wherein the public is an equal partner in the endeavor.
Edward Royce (1999) identified a variety of ways by which scholars have engaged with the general public. The most typically recognized form of public scholarship is that of academics who write essays and books addressing issues of general concern directed toward a public of well-educated readers. However, numerous other forms of communication are available to scholars that can reach a wider lay audience, or smaller specialized publics. Some choose to write books, articles, columns, and op-eds for general public consumption; others produce films or documentaries to convey their messages. They can help to popularize issues by translating complex or technical works into more accessible language. Some apply their knowledge by lobbying and/or providing expert testimony with the goal of changing public policy. They may conduct classes, forums, and workshops or engage in discussions of specific issues important to local communities and organizations. Some may appear on local or national television or radio programs to discuss their work. They may choose to make their research materials available directly to community organizations and political entities. Some form partnerships with community groups to co-create activist or participatory research projects involving community members in the entire process. William Doherty (professor in Family Social Science Department at the University of Minnesota) describes what he calls engagement work as “an interactive, two way mode that involves community members as collaborators and co-creators who co-define questions or problems, work together to find answers or solutions, collectively critique and reflect upon findings or experiences, and disseminate new knowledge in appropriate ways” (qtd. in Boyte, 2003).
We have identified several basic purposes of public scholarship:
Providing insight by:
- raising public awareness and knowledge,
- facilitating self-discovery/self-awareness,
- serving as a moral advisor,
- providing a broader worldview; and
Facilitating public action by:
- seeking to empower people,
- building community,
- elevating the quality of public discourse/promoting deliberation,
- promoting social activism and/or influencing public policy.
Examples of individual scholars, programs, and/or projects are listed which illustrate each purpose. It is important to note, however, that virtually every form of public scholarship serves multiple purposes; thus, categorizing the examples is difficult in that they each generally fulfill several missions of public scholarship. As an example, primatologist Dr. Jane Goodall’s public scholarship fits nearly all categories. Goodall is widely known for her extensive studies of chimpanzees in the Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania. The results of her research contributed immeasurably to the field of primatology with findings that chimpanzees use tools and engage in such social behaviors as warfare, courtship, and adoption. In addition to her academic work, however, Goodall has devoted her life to raising awareness and promoting public activism regarding animal and environmental concerns. In 1977, she established the Jane Goodall Institute, whose stated mission is “to advance the power of individuals to take informed and compassionate action to improve the environment for all living things” (JaneGoodallInstitute). In addition to protecting chimpanzees and their environments, the Institute engages in community-based conservation and development programs in Africa and an environmental education program called Roots & Shoots directed toward youth and having programs in more than 70 countries. Goodall is a United Nations Messenger of Peace. According to the Institute’s website, “Messengers help mobilize the public to become involved in work that makes the world a better place. They serve as advocates in a variety of areas: poverty eradication, human rights, peace and conflict resolution, HIV/AIDS, disarmament, community development and environmentalism” (Id.). Goodall has written a number of adult and children’s books on environmental and animal issues and she currently devotes much of her energy to lecturing around the world, “sharing her message of hope for the future and encouraging young people to make a difference in their world” (Id.). The various activities in which Goodall and her Institute engage serve essentially every identified purpose of public scholarship.
Purposes of Public Scholarship:
1. Providing Insight
By making their expertise, insight, and research results available to both academic and nonacademic audiences, scholars can illuminate broad societal concerns as well as narrower local problems and challenges that citizens may not readily recognize, or may tend to dismiss. Scholars’ expert knowledge in their disciplinary fields uniquely qualify them to bring a deeper understanding of issues and possible solutions to their audiences, and thereby assist citizens in approaching problems from an informed and considered standpoint. Such communications may take several forms.
A. Raising Public Awareness/Knowledge
Communicating new information directly into the public sphere in order to raise the awareness of public citizens about a problem or situation may be the most straightforward and easily recognizable way by which public scholars share their work. It could be argued to be a central role of all scholars, particularly those at publicly supported universities. By increasing citizens' awareness, public scholars hope to bring to light problems and opportunities that are largely missed (or ignored) by a group of citizens.
Compared to other, more 'involved', forms of public scholarship, the simple act of raising public awareness and knowledge may seem to be a benign act of information-sharing that is beyond controversy. However, what information is shared – and how it is shared – may be viewed by some citizens as a neutral (and therefore acceptable) activity, and seen as an activist position by others.
According to a New York Times obituary (Noble & Martin, 2006), the late John Kenneth Galbraith was an “iconoclastic economist, teacher and diplomat and an unapologetically liberal member of the political and academic establishment he often needled in prolific writings for more than half a century.” When he died in April 2006, he was economics professor emeritus at Harvard. He served in advisory capacities in the Franklin D. Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon Johnson administrations, including contributing to the vision of Johnson’s Great Society program. He oriented his studies (particularly influenced by Veblen and Keynes) to current economic issues, taking a social, cultural approach to economics (as opposed to a more typical mathematical model), making his work relevant to the topics of the day. Galbraith was a compelling writer in both his academic and nonacademic works. His best-known books were American Capitalism (1952), The Affluent Society (1958), and The New Industrial State (1967). In The Affluent Society, Galbraith illuminated the increasing gap between the wealthy and the poor in the post World War II era, considering the situation a threat to the nation’s economic stability. He advocated investment in the country’s infrastructure (e.g., transportation, education) in order to strengthen the public sector to balance against the power of the private sector. He updated this book in 1996 (when he was nearly 90) and renamed it The Good Society, proclaiming his belief that the concerns voiced in his earlier work had become exacerbated. Galbraith’s writings, presented in a readable style, served to bring his economics concerns and potential solutions to the attention of citizens and the political elite.
B. Facilitating Self-Discovery/Self-Awareness
Some scholars seek to promote self-discovery or self-awareness among members of their public by debunking “common sense” views, highlighting warning signs about current situations and events of concern, or making us acknowledge the flaws in our thinking about certain social issues. For example, they might illuminate ways that politicians manipulate citizens through strategic political communications or they might illuminate parallels between troublesome historical incidents and current political activities supported by the public that could lead down a similar negative path.
David Domke, associate professor in the Department of Communication at the University of Washington, explains in his own words that “…my research and teaching interests have focused on how political leaders act strategically to shape public discourse, the ways in which news media report on politics, and the implications for American public opinion and democracy” (God Willing? website – Biography). His book, God Willing?: Political Fundamentalism in the White House, the “War on Terror,” and the Echoing Press, examines the “political fundamentalist” strategic communications of the Bush administration following the September 11, 2001 attacks, its control over the public agenda, and the resulting detrimental impacts on democracy and public debate. This book bridges the divide between academic scholarship and the general public. Based in rigorous research, Domke elucidates – in clear and accessible language – the administration’s use of religious and authoritarian rhetoric in its political communications to play on America’s fears, the mass media’s willingness to repeat the messages with little questioning, and warns citizens of the dangers posed to our democracy by subverting open dialogue. Domke's exposure of the administration's strategies allows greater understanding and a chance to examine our own thoughts and actions in regard to the government's tactics.
C. Serving as a Moral Advisor
At times, scholars may serve the role of moral advisor to the public. They encourage us to examine our moral standards, beliefs, and conduct – as individuals and as a society – particularly in relation to issues and challenges of broad public concern. Such scholars often come from a background in theological and/or ethics studies and they generally address “the universal moral concerns for justice (fairness) and human welfare” (Nucci, 1987). Two views of morality have been famously argued by Larry Kohlberg – the injunction not to treat others unfairly (justice), and by Carol Gilligan – the injunction not to turn away from someone in need (care). Public scholars concerned with social issues may advocate for either or both moralities. They promote a moral decision-making approach to solutions for any number of prevalent social problems; e.g., racism, poverty, environmental concerns, and capital punishment, to name just a few.
Archbishop Desmond Tutu is illustrative of such scholars. He has earned worldwide recognition for his human rights advocacy. Tutu was educated as a teacher in South Africa, is an ordained priest, earned a Master of Theology, and is an honorary doctor of a number of leading universities around the world. In 1984, Tutu won the Nobel Peace Prize for his diligent and passionate work against apartheid in South Africa. Tutu stated as his objective “a democratic and just society without racial divisions” (Nobelprize.org). Since that time, Tutu has engaged in worldwide speaking tours wherein he continues to express his concerns about advocating on behalf of human rights issues, such as Israeli/Palestinian relations, U.S. detentions in Guantanamo Bay, homophobia, and HIV/AIDS policies. Tutu is a Professor of Theology at Emory University. Published collections of his speeches, sermons and other writings include Crying in the Wilderness, Hope and Suffering, and The Rainbow People of God. (Academy of Achievement website).
D. Providing a Broad Worldview
Worldview refers to the frame of reference or lens through which we see and understand the world around us; it refers to how our preconceptions influence how we organize information we seek out, perceive, process, and how we interpret the meaning of such information. It is not easy to change adults’ worldviews; most are likely to resist attempts by others to alter the coherency of the framework through which they explain and interact with their world. Some public scholars may contribute their expertise and insights to the public dialogue surrounding international, domestic, and local issues, and in so doing they provide explanations of diverse worldviews for public consideration and reflection. They make us examine our preconceived notions of how the world works.
Bernard Lewis is Cleveland E. Dodge Professor Emeritus of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University. His research has focused on the history of Islam and the “clash of civilizations” (coined by Lewis in his essay The Roots of Muslim Rage, 1990) between Islam and the West. In addition to his extensive academic writings, Lewis has published several books on the Middle East and Islam directed toward a nonacademic audience. As one of the most authoritative Islamic and Middle Eastern scholars, Lewis has been explaining the Islamic worldview (traditional and fundamentalist) to Westerners since the mid-1930s, though his work has become more widely known since the September 11, 2001 attacks. In addition to The Roots of Muslim Rage, Lewis also wrote What Went Wrong?: Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response (2002) and The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror (2004). In What Went Wrong?, Lewis discusses the internal conflict within the Islamic world in response to modernization. In The Crisis of Islam, Lewis offers historical and ideological background of Islam, as well as suggestions for a culturally based policy for the expansion of freedom to the region (Kirk, 2004).
2. Facilitating Public Action
In addition to contributing the benefits of their academic knowledge into the public sphere, scholars often take steps to encourage and facilitate social action among members of the public. They may seek to help marginalized individuals, communities, and organizations gain the skills needed to communicate their concerns effectively to politicians and the media, thereby empowering them to solve their own problems. They may enlist members of a community in partnership with the individual academic and the university to identify problems, work together to find solutions, and share the new knowledge with others, thereby creating bonds between the community and the university, between communities, and among members of a developing community. Scholars may provide models, instruction, and/or forums for public deliberation of social issues in the hope that a better-informed and more constructive public conversation may ensue. Finally, academics may engage in social activism related to their scholarship (and prod others to act on their convictions) and/or provide expert testimony and research results to political and other power elites in order to effect policy change.
A. Empowering People
Many public scholars in faculty positions at American colleges and universities have used their knowledge and expertise to connect with local communities facing a variety of challenges. Scholars’ knowledge of politics, culture, and collective action have helped communities identify problems and address them. An example of this type of scholarship might be teaching groups effective communication techniques for getting their messages heard by the power elite and carried in the mass media.
This type of public scholarship was exemplified by the late Paul Wellstone, who, before becoming a U.S. Senator, was a professor at Carleton College, in southern Minnesota. His research and teaching focused on questions of economic justice and poverty. In addition to teaching political science – with an emphasis on activist politics – Wellstone put his political knowledge to work, helping farmers in the area organize to protect local farms from predatory lending and foreclosure, and to bring improved health benefits, education, and transportation to the area. A friend and former colleague of Wellstone wrote, “It was clear that he was less concerned about academic political science than about political science directly serving people’s needs.” As an academic, Wellstone was able to use these experiences to contribute to academic knowledge about contemporary American rural collective action (Wellstone, 2003).
George Lakoff is a professor of cognitive linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley. He is particularly well known for his work with the importance of metaphor to our ways of thinking and our political behavior. In this vein, Lakoff wrote Moral Politics: How Liberals and Conservatives Think (2002) and Don’t Think of an Elephant: Know your Values and Frame the Debate (2004). In both books, Lakoff discusses the differences in conservative and liberal/progressive worldviews, explaining how each group’s mental concepts of morality and outlook on the family guide their politics. Lakoff goes beyond simply presenting expertise on these diverse worldviews; he articulates specific techniques for liberal political discourse that can effectively counter conservative communication strategies and empower progressives to reclaim a position of strength in the political debate.
B. Building Community
While the credibility or quality of public scholarship that involves members of the public in the process can be debated, there is a clear understanding that such involvement can help create community; the rule of thumb seems to be "nothing about us without us" (Charlton, 2000). That is to say, researchers should think carefully about acting as the voice of a community, particularly a community that is still struggling to establish itself. Inclusion of community members in a field research or laboratory setting helps to assure that the community voice is authentic. This is not only ethical, but it is also a benefit to credible scholarship.
One example of such community-building is offered by Ellen Cushman (teacher in the College Writing Programs at the University of California at Berkeley). She advocates the role of public intellectuals in contributing to a more just society by combining “their research, teaching, and service efforts in order to address social issues important to community members in under-served neighborhoods” (1999) through service learning and activist research.
__Service Learning__. Instructors can develop service learning courses wherein university students go into communities to apply their classroom learning to their experience volunteering locally in such places as public schools, churches, half-way houses, and shelters. Students become participant observers where they are situated as learners – not teachers – and the service goals are not predetermined. Rather, they enter into dialogue with community members “in a sincere effort to both engage in and observe language use that helps address the topics that are important to the community members” (Id.). In this manner, reciprocal relationships develop in which both parties benefit from the encounter. Through their field experience, students gather notes on their experiences, which they can then relate to their class work and readings. Further, the field notes offer research source material for the instructors. The instructors also volunteer, thus allowing them to recognize the community’s social concerns and needs and they can fashion curricula that address the specific issues. Such service learning engages the community in the process of knowledge-making, thus fostering community-building between the academy and local community members.
__Activist Research__. Cushman suggests that “activist research combines postmodern ethnographic techniques with notions of reciprocity and dialogue to insure reciprocal and mutually beneficial relations between scholars and those with whom knowledge is made” (Id.). Activist research avoids a top-down approach, wherein the academic is the primary beneficiary, through active participation in the community. In this way, activist research is based in praxis (i.e., the practice of ethical living in cooperation with other members of a community). Cushman offers as example her “Social Issues of Literacy” course wherein undergraduates at Berkeley work with the Coronado YMCA in Richmond, “which residents of the East Bay call ‘the forgotten inner city’” (Id.). The coursework consists of scholarly readings on literacy issues, student volunteer participation onsite, collecting field data, and compiling case studies grounded in theory. (For further details on the project, see Cushman, 1999.) Benefits to Cushman’s students include the real-life application of theory to practice. The YMCA staff benefits from the Berkeley students providing invaluable assistance in creating and conducting a unique program that “engages youths in language use that would promote their reading and writing – without reproducing a school atmosphere” (Id.). Benefits are also realized for future research with the generation of data collected by the extensive study of literacy in the specific community.
As Cushman explains,
"The research contributes to teaching by informing a curriculum that responds to both students' and community members' needs, and to service by indicating emerging problems in the community which the students and curriculum address. The teaching contributes to research by generating fieldnotes, papers, taped interactions and other materials, and to service by facilitating the community organization's programmatic goals with the volunteer work. The service contributes to research by addressing political and social issues salient in everyday lived struggles, and to teaching by offering students and professors avenues for testing the utility of previous scholarship in light of community members' daily lives and cultural values" (Id.).
C. Elevating the Quality of Public Discourse/Promoting Deliberation
By teaching and modeling critical thinking and civil, respectful, effective modes of communication, scholars can promote a higher quality of discourse and deliberation in the public sphere. As with most types of public scholarship, this activity may take any of a number of forms. Some public scholars may offer workshops specifically addressing how to improve citizens’ informed, critical thinking and communication skills and offer techniques for respectful and effective debate. Some are involved with specific issues forums where citizens meet to debate public policy concerns. Other intellectuals may engage in public debate among themselves or with other citizens, thereby modeling civil discourse.
According to their website, the NIF “is a network of civic, educational, and other organizations, and individuals, whose common interest is to promote public deliberation in America. It has grown to include thousands of civic clubs, religious organizations, libraries, schools, and many other groups that meet to discuss critical public issues. Forum participants range from teenagers to retirees, prison inmates to community leaders, and literacy students to university students. NIF does not advocate specific solutions or points of view but provides citizens the opportunity to consider a broad range of choices, weigh the pros and cons of those choices, and meet with each other in a public dialogue to identify the concerns they hold in common” (About Us page).
The forums, each focusing on a single specific issue, may be small groups of citizens meeting in individual homes or much larger community meetings fashioned on a New England town meeting format. Participants hold diverse views and opinions and work to find where their approaches connect with those of others in order to create consensus for action on issues of concern. Civil and respectful deliberation is key in the discussions, which are led by trained moderators. Nonpartisan issue books are prepared for the forums so that participants have balanced background information before debating possible ways to address a problem. They analyze each approach and weigh the pro and con arguments. (About Forums page.)
NIF produces discussion guides for the nonpartisan moderators of these forums. The organization also produces follow-up analyses of data collected from surveys conducted post-forum and via telephone interviews in order to understand what public thinking is about the debated issue. The website features an online discussion board where anyone can begin or participate in issues debate.
Ivory Tower Half Hour is a weekly television program airing at prime time on Public Broadcast Service affiliate WCNY in Ithaca, NY. A group of scholars from several universities and colleges in the region volunteer their time and expertise to the panel-format discussions of issues of national, state, and local relevance. The panel members – comprised of professors from academies such as Cornell University, Syracuse University, SUNY Cortland, Cazenovia College, and Onondaga Community College – come from various disciplines: American studies, political science, history and humanities, social sciences, and journalism. This diversity of background results in in-depth and insightful debates in a spirit of respect and civility (and even humor). Not only do the panelists model appropriate deliberative dialogue and behavior, their expert discussions increase the quality of public discourse by increasing citizens’ knowledge and awareness of social concerns.
D. Promoting Social Activism/Influence Public Policy
Public scholars may work to encourage and facilitate citizen political action and/or engage in direct efforts themselves to influence public policy on issues of broad social or global importance. Such intellectuals move beyond simply raising public awareness; rather, they actively involve themselves in efforts to effect social and political changes for the benefit of society.
The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) fulfills a number of purposes of public scholarship, but they emphasize political action to influence policy. A group of MIT faculty and students created UCS in 1969 in response to their alarm at the prevalence of improperly applied science and technology in politics and society. The following quote from the organization’s website explains that it consists of “core groups of scientists and engineers who collaborate with colleagues across the country to conduct technical studies on renewable energy options, the impacts of global warming, the risks of genetically engineered crops, and other related topics. We share the results of our research with policymakers, the news media, and the public. Our experts work together with citizens across the country to disseminate our findings and alter policies in local communities as well as on the national level. Our advocates are highly respected … and are frequently called to testify before government committees. The UCS Online Action Network gives citizens the means to keep informed on our issues and to help shape policy by expressing their view to government and corporate decisionmakers.”
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